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6. Cross-cutting Education Reform Progress and Impact
6.1 Poverty Impact of Education Reforms
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The Ministry continues to maintain a poverty impact focus in assessing sector performance, alongside the use of pro-poor targeting strategies within specific programs and interventions (e.g. scholarships and facilities targeting). As in previous years, communes in Cambodia have been ranked into 5 poverty quintiles (Q1 = poorest, Q5 = richest) according to WFP poverty indices.
As observed for overall primary enrolment, growth has slowed significantly since 2001/2002. Negative growth has been seen over the past two years in the richest 20% of communes and only quintiles 1 and 2 (poorest 40% of communes) demonstrate positive growth in 2002/03 (see Chart 7). These growth patterns have enabled further increases in the equitable distribution of primary enrolment across poverty quintiles. For example, the share for quintile 1 has increased from 15.1% to 17.8% over the past four years, compared to a reduction from 22.2% to 20% for quintile 5. This translates into a reduction in the education/poverty gap from 7.1 to 2.2. In other words broad MoEYS strategy is continuing to have significant impact on improved equity in access by broad socio-economic grouping, particularly the abolition of start of year fees.
Chart 7: Overall Primary Enrolment Growth By Poverty Quintile
The difference in the 2002/03 - 2003/04 lower secondary transition rate is substantial with 95% of students from quintile 5 progressing to lower secondary, compared to only 64% from quintile 1. However, a lower secondary new intake growth rate of 32% in quintile 1 has been sustained over the last 3 years, compared to growth slowing to 4.3% in quintile 5. In particular, the new intake growth for females remains significantly high with almost an additional 1,000 girls entering grade 7 in 2003/04.
Overall enrolment growth is highest in quintile 1 at 27%, compared to only 5% in quintile 5, the number of additional students enrolled in 2003/04 was just over 7,000 in both these quintiles. Overall, pro-poor education finance policies are having impact on grade 7 intake, alongside sustained pro-poor lower secondary expansion strategies. Of the 117 lower secondary schools created since 2000, 73% of them have been in communes from the poorest two poverty quintiles.
Chart 8: Grade 7 New Intake Growth
Despite these improvements, the inequities in access to grades 7 - 9 remain severe. Enrolment share for the poorest 20% of communes has risen from 5.4% to 7.7% over the last fours years, the share for the richest communes has fallen by 5.1% points over the same period. In other words, in grades 7 - 9, the richest communes are still significantly over-represented.
These inequities are even more severe in grades 10 - 12, where the richest quintile has accounted for more than 50% of enrolment since 2000/01, compared to only 2.2% from the poorest quintile in 2003/04. In upper secondary grades, the second and third poorest quintiles are also significantly under-represented with shares of around only 13/14%. Once again, the shares are beginning to converge but it is apparent that additional measures are needed to accelerate enrolment growth and shares from the lower quintiles, especially quintile 1.
A key lesson learned in lower secondary is that providing operational budgets to offset parental contributions is not sufficient for equitable access to be achieved. Despite the majority of schools built in the last four years being located in the poorest 40% of communes, 71% of communes in quintile 1 have no lower secondary schools, compared to around 50% in other quintiles. Nationally, almost 900 communes have no lower secondary school. Another factor is that start of year contributions in lower secondary schools represents only a proportion of the overall informal charges on parents. In response, the Ministry is speeding up secondary school construction in the poorest communes, implementing policies to abolish illegal payments and expanding the nationwide scholarships for the poor program in grades 7-9.
Analysis of efficiency indicators shows that significant inequities in the distribution of teachers and facilities remain. For example, the 2003/04 primary pupil teacher ratio (PTR) in quintile 1 was 78, compared to only 44 in quintile 5 and a national figure of 55. There are significant rates of double-shifting of facilities in all quintiles, with quintile 1 having a pupil per classroom ratio of 75 compared to 69 in quintile 1. Nevertheless, even though primary enrolment in quintile 5 is only 21% higher than in quintile 1, there are 31% more classrooms.
Primary dropout rates are significantly higher in quintile 1 than in quintile 5 at 16% and 9.5% respectively between 2002/03 and 2003/04. A major factor for this difference is the high numbers of incomplete schools in the poorest communes. 50% of primary schools (a total of 592) in the poorest commune do not offer all primary grades, compared to only 27% (268) in the richest commune.
Despite these disparities, the average class size in primary schools in the poorest communes is 48, only marginally higher than that of the richest at 43. In other words, despite the disadvantages of size and staffing, primary schools in the poorest communes demonstrate similar proxy indicators of quality and efficiency to those of the richest communes. Schools in these poorer communes are making every effort to optimise use of limited resources, including the increased number of double-shift, multi-grade and location allowances for teachers.
6.2 Reform Progress and Impact Analysis by Gender and Ethnic Minority
6.2.1 Progress and Impact on Gender
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The reforms are continuing to have a positive impact on female enrolment in primary and secondary school. Despite primary enrolment slowing down, in 2003/04 the number of girls in primary schools increased by 7,000 compared to a net decrease in male enrolment. growth. The growth in the number of girls can be attributed to remote and rural areas (growth of around 12,000, larger than overall growth due to a decline in urban female enrolment). Since 2000, the number of girls in primary school has increased from 1.11 million to 1.29 million (girls 16% growth, boys 12%). This suggests that the elimination of start of year contributions continues to have a differential positive effect on girls attending primary school.
The growth rate of girls in lower secondary education has been around 7%-9% higher than for boys over the past four years. Since 2000/01 the number of girls in lower secondary has increased by 84% to almost 200,000 in 2003/04. The enrolment share of girls has increased from 37% to 42% over the same period. Female transition rates into secondary school have risen from around 71% between 1999/00 and 2000/01 to 80% between 2002/03 and 2003/04. For example, in 2003/04 there were around 88,000 entering grade 7, compared to only 51,000 in 2000/01, an increase of 73%.
Chart 9: Gender Gap By Education Level 2000/01, 2003/04
Enrolment patterns are less promising at upper secondary and post secondary education levels. In 2003/04 only 25,000 entered grade 10 (37% of total) however, this is an increase of 220% compared to the 7,600 that entered in 2000/01. Female share of grade 10-12 enrolment has gradually increased from 32% in 2000/01 to 36% in 2003/04. The low share of girls in upper secondary education contributes to low female participation in higher education and TVET where female share is around 20-25%.
Table 8: National NER Gender Gaps - All Levels
| |
Primary |
Lower Secondary |
Upper Secondary |
| Academic Year Start |
Female |
Male |
Gender Gap |
Female |
Male |
Gender Gap |
Female |
Male |
Gender Gap |
| 2000 |
80.7% |
86.9% |
6.2 |
13.7% |
19.5% |
5.8 |
5.4% |
10.0% |
4.5 |
| 2001 |
84.2% |
89.8% |
5.7 |
16.4% |
21.4% |
5.1 |
5.4% |
9.3% |
3.8 |
| 2002 |
88.9% |
97.1% |
8.1 |
17.9% |
22.0% |
4.1 |
5.6% |
8.6% |
3.1 |
| 2003 |
88.6% |
91.5% |
2.8 |
19.8% |
22.7% |
2.8 |
6.6% |
9.6% |
3.0 |
Despite these improvements, the Ministry recognises that additional strategies may be needed to increase participation of girls at all levels of education. The Ministry has prepared an initial action plan through the Gender Mainstreaming Working Group in early 2003. The abolition of start of year contributions and remedial classes are gradually improving female progression rates in grades 3-5. This strategy will be continued in order to reduce the NER gender gap, alongside public education programs to ensure that girls enrol for primary school at age 6.
The gender action plan also acknowledges the urgency of improving female grade 6/7 transition rates. Although grade 6 dropout rates have been reduced from 16% to 11.4% over the past four years, dropout remains the critical factor in addressing under representation of girls in secondary education and beyond. The new grade 7-9 scholarships for the poor program will therefore allocate 60% of incentives to girls, selected at the end of grade 6. In the medium term, the Ministry is considering additional measures to increase female participation beyond grade 9, including scholarships for girls/poor in grades 10-12 and post secondary studies alongside selective provision of girls dormitory facilities at various education levels.
A key strategy will be to continue to expand the range of complementary NFE programs in order to allow re-entry at various levels of education. Females are recognising these NFE opportunities demonstrated by the high proportion enrolled in the various programs, especially primary equivalency and literacy. In various ways, these programs provide second opportunities for drop outs to return to education and progress to higher levels. The Ministry recognises a number of challenges in optimising the impact of these programs. Firstly, there is a need to ensure effective standards and accreditation. Secondly, the scope for more formal accreditation of literacy programs has to be addressed as part of a ladder of opportunity. Thirdly, the scope for expansion of secondary equivalency programs as a medium term measure to enhance female enrolment will be investigated.
Chart 10: Education Staff Gender Ga
The Ministry is aware that increasing the number of female teachers and managers can have a positive impact on gender equity at all levels of education. Currently, females represent around 40% of primary teaching staff, declining to 22% of upper secondary teachers. The proportion in post secondary institutions ranges between 10% and 30%. Women are also under represented in managerial and administrative positions, especially in district education offices (a pivotal position for decentralisation) constituting only 16% of overall staffing, this figure grows slowly because it refer to other factors. As a first step, the Ministry policy is to increase the number of female teaching staff through many measures. Through the gender-mainstreaming group, the Ministry will examine additional strategies to improve opportunities for female students and staff at all levels.
6.2.2 Progress and Impact on Ethnic Minorities
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Improving equitable access to high quality education services in minority areas continues to be a key component of ESP/ESSP strategy and programming. The Ministry acknowledges that the broader ESP/ESSP strategies and programs will partially address these specific concerns, alongside some targeted interventions. There has been positive impact on pupils in poor communes, remote areas and ethnic minority. After conducting pilot exercises in 5 province, which have 6 districts, 17 villages, 24 groups, 372 mothers and 560 pupil (girls 343, 272 five-year pupils equal 48%), the pupils have improved in health, knowledge, memory, social communication and languages that enable the ethnic minority to access primary.
Primary enrolment in ethnic minority areas has enrolment growth ranging between 6% (Steung Treng) and 16% (Ratanakiri) in 2003/04. At lower secondary level enrolment there has been growth of 27.5% (Preah Vihear) and 37% (Mondulkiri). In all cases female enrolment growth in lower secondary exceeded that of males.
However, overall enrolment and admission rates remain disappointing in these provinces when compared to the national average (see Table 9). For example, the primary net enrolment rates in Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri are only 54.3% and 74.4% respectively, amongst the lowest in the country. Net admission rates are also comparatively low in 2002/03 due to a combination of late entry and uncertain demand for formal schooling. This argues for development of specific strategies to address the unique access constraints in ethnic minority areas (eg bilingual curricula and programs, scholarships, training of ethnic minority teachers and other programs).
Table 9: Key Indicators for Ethnic Minority Provinces, 2003/04 in Primary
| |
NIR |
NER |
|
|
|
| Location |
Female |
Total |
Gender Gap |
Female |
Total |
Gender Gap |
G1-6 PCR |
PCR |
PTR |
| Mondulkiri |
50.7% |
55.4% |
8.9 |
65.9% |
74.4% |
17.0 |
34 |
47 |
40 |
| Preah Vihear |
66.5% |
66.3% |
-0.4 |
81.9% |
82.6% |
1.4 |
38 |
59 |
41 |
| Ratanakiri |
35.5% |
40.1% |
9.0 |
46.4% |
54.3% |
15.2 |
36 |
46 |
52 |
| Steung Treng |
75.1% |
77.7% |
5.1 |
85.6% |
88.4% |
5.9 |
33 |
51 |
36 |
| National Average |
77.4% |
78.7% |
2.5 |
88.6% |
90.1% |
2.8 |
45 |
67 |
45 |
Ethnic minority areas remain under-served in secondary education. Lower secondary net enrolment rates in the 4 provinces are low at fewer than 10% compared to an overall national average of 21%. The same situation applies at upper secondary where these provinces have very low net enrolments compared to the national average of 8%. However, overall secondary enrolment in these ethnic minority areas is growing comparatively quickly from a low baseline. The Ministry has continued two specific measures to address this issue in 2003/04 through targeted secondary school facilities and targeted scholarships/incentives for ethnic minority students.
MoEYS is also examining additional interventions to improve education opportunities in ethnic minority areas. Strategies will draw on lessons learned from pilot programs on literacy, community based education, and bilingual curriculum and staff development. The Ministry's objective in 2004/05 will be to consolidate a set of specific education interventions in ethnic minority areas, including measures to train and retain local teachers in primary and secondary schools, possibly expand bilingual curricula in early primary grades.
In addition, as part of a broader strategy, the Ministry is addressing the problem of a high incidence of incomplete schools in these provinces. In 2003/04 there were 332 incomplete primary schools out of a total of 448 (74%). The Ministry is considering a strategy of expanding the range of institutional development incentives to these schools, alongside addressing the specific cultural dynamics of these provinces. The overall goal will be to develop sustainable school institutions, which deliver appropriate services in a cost effective manner.
6.3 Education in Remote and Border Areas: Progress and Impact
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The Ministry has undertaken an initial strategic analysis of key institutional issues relating to the improvement of education services in remote and border areas, alongside the questions of small and/or incomplete schools. The Ministry is already taking a number of measures to improve services in these disadvantaged areas and schools through initiatives such as double-shift, multi-grade and remote teachers allowances. Over the past year, the Ministry has reviewed the scope for introducing additional pupil and teacher incentive strategies.
In 2002/03, the first phase of the education service efficiency program, based on targeted staff deployment incentives, was implemented. The total budget allocation in the first year was roughly riels 10 billion (US$ 2.5 million). The main features of the re-deployment program in 2003 were a) a total of 1,474 teachers were re-deployed to new locations in 2003, mainly within or across communes and b) a total of 15,286 teachers received special difficult or remote posting allowances in 2003, in order to ensure more equitable deployment and medium term retention of better qualified staff in these locations. The main lessons learned can be summarized as follows:
» Despite one-off re-deployment payment between Riels 300,000 and 1.5 million (US$ 75-375), the incentive is insufficient to ensure re-deployment of staff. There have some constraints after deployment.
» As with many resettlement programs, it is problematic to provide appropriate levels and kinds of incentives that will encourage staff and their families to re-locate to a new area, including issues of separation from family, availability of land for food production and income generation and non-availability of housing in the new location.
» Deployment of newly trained teachers to remote and difficult postings where schools under-staffed may be more effective and sustainable because the resettlement constraints are lessened.
These lessons learned have been reviewed as part of the revised MoEYS staffing re-deployment strategy for 2004 onwards.
The high incidence of incomplete schools in the border communes has a number of consequences. Firstly, it contributes to higher rates of primary school drop out and growth in the number of out-of-school youth. Secondly, it contributes to lower rates of progression to secondary education and reduction in immediate demand for secondary schooling. Low secondary school enrolment in the border areas is exacerbated by the limited availability of lower and upper secondary school facilities. There are 12 border districts with no lower secondary school facilities representing 20% of total, compared to only 8% in non-border districts. At upper secondary level, the figures are 47% and 25% respectively.
The Ministry is aware that unique challenges exist in remote and border areas for the management and delivery of education services. As a first step, the Ministry is taking measures to improve the management of existing resources (e.g. ensuring timely delivery of books, providing on-site teacher development) and strengthen coordination between districts and remote schools. MoEYS strategies for remote and border areas will be implemented from 2004 onwards and focus on the issues identified.
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