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2. Sector Performance Indicators and Trends
2.1 Primary, Secondary and Post-Secondary Enrolment Trends 2000 - 2004
2.1.1 Pre-primary school enrolment trend
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From 2000 to 2004, the total number of pre-primary school has decreased from 2020 to 1651, including public, private and community. The number of classroom has decreased from 2755 to 2711. The number of pupils aged from 3 to less than 6 has increased from 80341 to 93916, girls from 28391 to 41887. The number of school has decreased and so enrolment growth is slow due to unsustained pre-schools, which depend on resources or NGOs or communities.
However, public pre-schools have increased from 952 to 1275 and the number of classes has increased from 1628 to 2249. The pupils aged from 3 to 5 have increased from 57867 to 77345, girls from 8391 to 41887. In 2003/04, pupils aged from 3 to 5 have increased 11% and pupils aged 5 increased 20% (Staff has increased from 2438 to 2928). These indicate that the number of school, classroom, enrolment and teachers have increased only in public schools. The slow growth is caused by few teachers trained and with some pre-primary teachers teaching in primary school. Some pre-schools have no budget for maintenance, or for producing teaching materials.
2.1.2 Primary School Enrolment Trends
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Primary school enrolment has grown by 14% from 2.4 million to 2.7 million over the past four years, with the majority of growth being in rural areas. Primary enrolment in remote areas has grown from 54,000 to around 81,000 over the same period. The Ministry projects that primary enrolment will begin to fall to around 2.4 million by 2008. The number of remote primary schools has increased from 318 to 473 in the past 4 years. An additional contributing factor has been a highly effective public information campaign on earlier age of enrolment and awareness rising on changed financing policy. The lesson learned is that the abolition of start of year contributions, offset by primary school operational budgets, has been effective in reducing the cost barriers on access for poorer families in rural and urban. Nevertheless, additional targeted strategies are needed to address access constraints in districts and communes with specific disadvantages (e.g. small and incomplete schools).
The overall primary net enrolment rate (NER) has grown from 83.8% to 90.1% since 2000, with an 8% growth in female NER. In remote areas, NER growth has been more striking rising from 62.3% to 78.6% over the same period, due to provision of school facilities closer to home.
Nevertheless, significant late enrolment and persistent high dropout and repetition rates need to be addressed if NER growth is not to stagnate. The Ministry is addressing this issue through expansion of non-formal education and literacy programs, where enrolment has grown to over 135,000. The main lesson learned is that additional strategies are needed to sustain further growth in primary education opportunities, including a) targeted expansion of Early Childhood Education (ECE) in the poorer communes, b) better regulation of entry at age 6, c) reducing the number of incomplete primary schools and d) selective expansion of grade 3-9 re-entry programs. The overarching objective is to further reduce access constraints and cost barriers through locating full grade 1-6 provision closer to home and abolition of all illegal parental payments.
2.1.3 Secondary School Enrolment Trends
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Lower secondary education enrolments have increased significantly since 2000, from around 284,000 to 460,000 (62% increase). The number of lower secondary schools has increased from 511 to 688, mainly in previously un-served rural and remote communes. While the gross enrolment rate (GER) has increased from 27% to 39%, the net enrolment rate has increased more slowly from 17% to 21%. Enrolment growth is showing some signs of levelling off, with only an 11% increase in the past year. The number of girls enrolled has grown from 105,000 to 193,000 (84% increase). Enrolment in remote areas remains very low with only 2,800 students attending grades 7-9.
Secondary school transition rates appear to be stagnating (see Chart 2), after an initial increase between 2000/01 and 2001/02. The number of students progressing from grade 6 to 7 and grade 9 to 10 has continued to rise. However, grade 6-7 transition has levelled off at around 83% over the past three years. Grade 9-10 transition has actually fallen from 63% to 60% over the same period. The situation is exacerbated by persistently high repetition and drop out rates, which reach over 26% in some lower secondary grades. The Ministry recognizes that any measures to expand access need to be accompanied by complementary efforts to improve internal efficiency and reduce wastage.
Chart 2: Secondary School Transition Rates, 2000-2004
The main lesson learned is that abolition of start of the year payments has proven insufficient in stimulating demand. The Ministry recognises the potential risk of grade 7-9 enrolment stagnation (already experienced over the period 1995-2000). The main constraints are a) the absence of grade 7-9 facilities in 965 communes and b) continuation of significant direct, indirect and perceived opportunity costs of attending grade 7-9, especially for girls and ethnic minorities. The Ministry recognises the urgency of addressing continued illegal payments by parents. MoEYS also intends to take the following actions: a) selective introduction of basic cycle schools to optimize use of existing primary school facilities, b) construction of at least 800 grade 7-9 facilities in un-served communes and c) selective expansion of the scholarships program for the poor, girls and ethnic minorities.
Upper secondary enrolment has grown from around 105,000 in 154,000 over the past four years. Net enrolment has remained roughly constant at around 7%-8% over the past four years. Girls and ethnic minority students are significantly underrepresented, with female share at around 36% of total. The main constraints on expanding opportunities have been a) continuation of informal contributions from parents, especially at secondary level and b) lack of lower secondary and upper secondary facilities in many rural and ethnic minority districts and communes. For example, 53 out of 185 districts (30% of total) do not have upper secondary facilities, which is a major factor in the stagnant grade 9-10 transition rates. The Ministry's strategic priorities are therefore to expand high quality upper secondary education in all districts and provinces to ensure equitable access to post secondary opportunities and paid employment.
2.1.4 Post-Secondary Enrolment Trends
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Reliable and timely data on higher education enrolment and TVET/skills training is problematic, due to uncertain definitions and embryonic information systems. However, recent studies and MoEYS statistics indicate that overall higher education enrolment has risen from 25,080 in 2000/01 to 44,855 in 2003/2004. Anecdotal evidence from Higher Education institutions showed that private enrolment in 2004 may have reached 35,785.
The enrolment in public institutions has risen significantly, reaching an estimated 25,201 in 2004, including around a third of non-fee paying students. The number of private universities and institutes increased to 30. Although female enrolment in higher education has remained at around 28% of total over the last 4 years, the number of female students has increased significantly. This is the case especially in private institutions, which constitute around 29% of female enrolment. This is largely due to greater availability of access courses and more evening programs.
The range of programs has also diversified, especially in private institutions, including associate degrees, bachelor degrees and specialised courses. There are 8 private universities/institutes, in 2004, who are offering higher education in selected provinces. The Ministry recognises that quality assurance and regulation of these programs needs to be strengthened, including credit transfer and cross-accreditation arrangements, in order to expand opportunities and selectively decentralize introductory higher education programs to some provinces. A related issue is to assure equitable access to increasingly fee-paying programs through appropriate merit driven financing schemes for the poor.
The diversity of public, private and NGO providers in TVET, alongside assessing full time equivalence of part-time students makes it difficult to accurately assess overall enrolment trends. Enrolment in public TVET institutions has remained roughly constant at around 5,500 to 6,000 students over the last four years. A recent survey suggests an additional 130,000 are enrolled in NGO programs and on-the-job training in private enterprises and small businesses who finance their own work force training. For example, it is estimated that around 50,000 (40% of total) are undertaking enterprise based training and another 70,000 to 80,000 in family business apprenticeships. Overall, females constitute an estimated 20%-25% of this overall enrolment.
The Ministry recognises that a strategic priority is to improve equitable access to skills training programs for young people aged 12-21, which constitute around 3.5 million potential students. As indicated above, only an estimated 0.6-0.8 million (around 20%) are currently in some form of education or training. The poorest rural communes remain particularly underserved due to mainly urban-based training provision and cost barriers. The Ministry's overall strategy is to enable a more demand driven and community based approach to expanding skills training opportunities.
Matching teacher education supply/demand with proposed education sector expansion is a critical issue, especially the balance between primary and secondary teacher needs. Current supply/demand is set by intake ceilings into provincial and regional TTCs by the RGC with assistance from CAR. The current 2002/03 enrolment is 9,200, which represents a growth of around 4% compared to 2001/02. Forward planning will take account of the projected fall in overall primary enrolment (after 2006) and expansion of secondary enrolment, requiring a reorientation of PTTC and RTTC capacity towards increased share of secondary school teacher trainees.
The Ministry has introduced specific guidelines for the recruitment of teacher trainees from remote areas (1,534 in 2002/03 - 25% of total) as a strategy for education service improvement in remote schools. The strategic priority will be to review the roles and intake levels of the National Institute of Education, regional TTCs and provincial TTCs, taking account of projected teacher requirements in primary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools.
2.2 Education Service Efficiency Indicators and Trends 2000 - 2004
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Overall, progression rates are levelling off at an average of around 80% across grades 1-6. Average dropout and repetition rates are also stagnating at around 11%-12% and 7%-8% respectively. There are significant variations across grades, with repetition rates in grade 1 at 19% and grade 2 at 12%, compared to only 4% and 2% in grades 5 and 6 respectively. Dropout rates increase in the higher primary grades, reaching 11% in grade 5. Nevertheless, there was a significant increase in the overall number of student progressing to the next grade, which helps alleviate the costs of repetition for poor families.
The lesson learned is that the current strategy of vacation time remedial programs and school operational budgets are insufficient to enable improved progression and reduce dropout. The Ministry's strategic priority is to enable improved internal efficiency and student flow, while simultaneously ensuring improvement of education standards and student performance. The Ministry recognises that poor families are currently disadvantaged by repetition and dropout and any strategy must ensure improved progression of these groups. The finally agreed strategy will also take account of the significant costs to Government and parents associated with high levels of repetition, dropout and associated re-entry programs. For example, it takes an estimated 10.8 years for a student to complete 6 years of primary education.
Table 1:Repetition and Drop-Out Rates in Incomplete Schools, Compared to National Average
Repetition Rates
| Measure |
Grade 1 |
Grade 2 |
Grade 3 |
Grade 4 |
Grade 5 |
| Incomplete Schools |
20.8% |
12.6% |
10.1% |
7.2% |
7.3% |
| National Average |
17.7% |
10.9% |
7.9% |
5.4% |
3.6% |
Repetition Rates
| Measure |
Grade 1 |
Grade 2 |
Grade 3 |
Grade 4 |
Grade 5 |
| Incomplete Schools |
20.8% |
12.6% |
10.1% |
7.2% |
7.3% |
| National Average |
17.7% |
10.9% |
7.9% |
5.4% |
3.6% |
A key constraint is the continued existence of incomplete primary schools, offering less than the full 6 primary grades, which results in higher levels of repetition and drop-out (see Table 1 above). Incomplete schools correlate strongly with both smallness and remoteness, especially in border and ethnic minority areas. For example, in Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri, average primary dropout rates are 27% and 22% respectively, compared to the national average of 12%. Girls are particularly adversely affected.
High dropout rates continue to persist in lower secondary education, reaching 17% and 26% in grades 8 and 9 respectively, despite expanded grade 7-9 facilities development in recent years. In addition, in rural areas, pupils are often the workforces that can help their families and in some areas, the families migrate seasonally. Cost barriers and variable ease of access represent continued constraints, including limited opportunities for easy progression from grades 9 to 10. The Ministry's strategic priorities therefore include a) phasing out incomplete schools as quickly as possible, including selective grade 7-9 facilities provision and some conversion into basic cycle grade 1-9 schools, b) revise more cost efficient remedial programs, c) expansion of grade 3-9 re-entry and equivalency programs and d) extending standards monitoring systems in selected grades.
Overall enrolment growth has provided opportunities for other medium-term efficiency gains. The amount of double shifting is significant and rising (college: 35%, lycee: 65% in 2002/03). In lower secondary schools the pupil teacher ratio (PTR) has risen from 19 in 2000/01 to 23 in 2002/03, the overall pupil class ratio (PCR) has risen from 41 to 47 over the same period. The Ministry recognises the need to achieve a balance between quality and efficiency improvement. In order to provide quality assurance the Ministry intends to contain the PCR over the next few years through construction of additional facilities while ensuring a sufficient and equitable deployment of experienced and qualified teachers.
Chart 3: Primary Pupil Teacher Ratio: By District, 2003/04
The Ministry has implemented a comprehensive program of staff re-deployment and performance based allowances to improve staff utilization. In 2003, around 1,500 teachers were redeployed to other locations and 15,300 receive difficult or remote posting allowances. The Ministry is aware that any expanded facilities program into under-served areas will require expansion of this redeployment program, including new forms of incentives to promote urban to rural relocation.
Enrolment growth in higher education and TVET has resulted in marked efficiency gains. For example, in higher education the PTR in both public and private institutions has increased; reaching 20 and 14 respectively in 2002/03. In TVET, the PTR has increased to around 13 in technical institutes and around 30 in provincial training centres. For teacher training colleges (TTCs) the PTR is around 16. Nevertheless, a strategic priority is to make further efficiency gains at these levels to accommodate increased demand, alongside rationalization of teaching and non-teaching staff levels.
2.3 Education Quality Improvement Indicators and Trends 2000 - 2004
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The absence of primary school and student performance standards and their monitoring means that reliable assessment of quality improvement and education standards is difficult. A number of program indicators have demonstrated the Ministry's continued commitment to quality improvement over the past four years. Textbook availability has been broadly sustained, maintaining the current 1:1 ratio in primary and lower secondary schools. Program budget allocations for a) primary and secondary operations and basic supplies, b) teacher training, c) program monitoring and d) performance based staff allowances, especially for school directors, have been introduced and sustained since 2001/02.
The quality and efficiency of the teaching service continues to improve. The number of trained primary school teachers has increased from around 42,000 in 1999/00 to 47,000 in 2002/03. The number of trained secondary school teachers has increased from 18,000 to 22,842 over the same period, with an increased share of the teaching force having upper secondary education or graduate qualifications. In order to sustain these improvements, the Ministry is continuing with additional measures. For example, the allocation for the teacher redeployment and incentives program has been increased. Teacher development program allocations increased by 10% in 2003, with increased emphasis on in-service teacher development and school management training.
Over the past four years, the Ministry has taken further steps to address the inequities in distribution of better-educated staff, especially in remote areas. The teaching staff in remote schools is characterised by a large proportion of teachers only completing primary school. The Ministry will continue to expand teacher deployment incentives in remote and disadvantaged areas. In addition, from 2003/04, over 1,500 teacher trainees (25% of total) were recruited from remote areas, with the understanding of initial teacher postings to these areas after training.
Despite these efforts to improve primary and secondary education quality, significant provincial variations in pass rates of grade 12 examinations remain. This creates difficulties in assuring a long-term supply of qualified secondary school and higher education graduates (including school teachers) in a number of provinces. For example, in 2002/03, a total of 14,360 students successfully passed the grade 12 exam, with 8,859 (around 62% of total) successful students being from 4 provinces (Phnom Penh, Kampong Cham, Kandal and Takeo). This situation is particularly acute in remote and border area provinces (e.g. Otdar Meanchey, Koh Kong, Mondulkiri and Pailin). A strategic priority will be to gradually develop a network of high quality upper secondary schools in each province in order to create a virtuous circle of secondary school graduates and teachers working in their home province.
Over the past four years, with the expansion of TVET and higher education provision, the Ministry has taken a number of steps to ensure improved quality assurance. These measures have included: a) increased use of the grade 12 exam for higher education admission, b) development of TVET skills standards and testing processes and c) the establishment of institutional arrangements for higher education quality assurance. A strategic priority will be further strengthening quality assurance systems, including new governance and regulatory frameworks, covering both public and private providers.
2.4 Institutional Development Indicators and Trends
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Over the past four years, the Ministry has introduced and implemented a comprehensive program of institutional reforms including a) planning processes to increase education budget share and execution, b) decentralized provisional and financial budget management centers (BMCs), c) new policy led budget allocation procedures, especially priority action programs (PAP), d) introduction of internal audit arrangements and e) an extensive capacity building program for central, provincial, district, cluster and school staff on implementing new operational guidelines. Despite some constraints, the Ministry has been broadly successful in implementing these reforms. More details are provided in sections 3 and 5.
The main lesson learned is that it takes time to promote an understanding and climate within which greater delegated authority can successfully operate. A further lesson learned is that greater delegated authority and responsibility needs to be underpinned by a clear legislative, governance and regulatory framework, especially to enable greater transparency and accountability between education authorities, schools and communities. On order to accelerate capacity building for decentralization the Ministry has a number of priorities, including a) passage of education law and key regulations, b) strengthening accounting and audit systems, c) broadening school and student performance information systems and d) further upgrading of sector performance monitoring operations.
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